INTRODUCTION
To understand and explain the radical rise of the radical right in Europe in the context of neo-liberalism as the reflection of the historical capitalist system in the era of neo-liberalism in a contemporary crisis, a reflection of the deepening European integration as a reflection of this, the attempt to reclaim the nation and nation-state and the system of coercion it is intended. Nationalism, a 19th-century product, has played an active role in creating a world model of sovereign nation-states, which would be most favorable for capitalism to function. But the stage of neo-liberalism has disrupted this relationship of mutual interest against nationalism. The capitalist system now demands a global world where nation-states and transnational regional unions instead of nation-states are highlighted, and all the restrictions on capital will be lifted as much as possible by shading the sovereignty of nation-states as much as possible; this re-establishes nationalism as an ideology against the new state of the system.
Nationalism is one of the important facts affecting today's social and political structure. Nationalism is often referred to as an ideology, discourse, language, and mobilizing political action. Nationalism is, after all, a doctrine. Therefore, different theories and approaches have been developed to explain the formation of nationalism. What underlies this approach is how and in what way the influences of nationalism on the political, social and cultural life occur. Modern nationalist theory, which was developed from the theoretical approaches to nationalism, indicates that it is a modern phenomenon.
Nationalism is a discourse, ideology is y imagined, and ultimately doctrine. An ideology; if ideology is in the position of "a straitjacket where there is no thought", then nationalism will also be able to prevent individuals from claiming "violating" the color, language, religion, and country of the world. It is an ideology. When you envision yourself that you have found yourself in a community where your skin color, the language of speech or religious belief is different, this will be cleared.
Nationalism is broad in scope from ideologies. It is relatively different from other ideologies in terms of ğinde forgetting log when it comes to transforming the past with continuous emphasis on differences and "Vague" it is. Nationalism finds its roots in the dilemmas of despair imposed on a great part of the world, equivalent to childhood for societies, and, like neurosis, it is also loaded with fundamental vagueness; to the extent that it is impossible: (Anderson, 2014: 19-20).
Today, in the EU, hiçbir Europeanism ”is not as an identity It is negligible. Although a wider approach is needed to embrace the former socialist East of Europe, along with the developed capitalist West of Europe, the EU continues its integration process both in a unifying and disintegrating dimension.EU integration is a supra-national unity among its members in Europe instead of emphasizing the differences between members and accepting these differences, it tries to reveal the difference of Europe against non-EU European countries and other parts of the world. However, this situation is both EU it does not prevent the emergence of demands for regional autonomy and also causes the emergence of nationalist currents against the EU. In other words, the EU project is experiencing a paradox in which the integration with nationalism is intertwined.
As a nationalist ideology, nationalism needs ve otherness ve, thus it gains meaning and continues to exist. Bahset It is not possible to talk about nationalism unless there are others. This logic leads us to the conclusion that there is no nationalism or international relations. Because, in an environment where there are no other states or even the state, all relations will remain internal. Thus; international organizations, international non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations will be meaningless. But all this is a dream.
Nowadays, EU members come together in this region. an example of living communities and civilizations in which these communities belong it is not possible to speak of a single Western or European civilization beyond that of generalization. This difference is not only a difference of the present day and it has not emerged today. First of all, Europe has been spatially limited because of past wars and invasions.
In addition, in Europe, after the French Revolution emerged with a desire for independence and strengthening nationalism; - because it has a distinctive nature due to its nature6, the emergence of small nation states with permanent disagreements and hostilities; The emergence of new nation-states could not ensure the continuity of peace in Europe and could not prevent the existence of two world wars and the Cold War beyond the regional wars. About half a century later, in 1989/91, this time the economic collapse, political After the dissolution and inflation, a new nationalist wave has begun. This wave has opened the way for the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, and the emergence of new nation-states and the emergence of new areas of conflict.
II. World War, EU integration in spite of all efforts since then it is also a fact that the point reached in the process is not a very desirable place and cannot escape the difficulties it has. Because the EU is on one hand While completing the integration process and aiming to be included in the international system as a new political subject, on the other hand, as a new nationalism, began to defend.
The 1789 French Revolution is recognized as the milestone of nationalist movements.Religious bigotry like nationalism (aphorisms, inquisition practices, Bible teaching) there is no scientific truth except ...) in the Middle Ages, again in Europe.
In addition, human rights, in particular women and children's rights, are violations and struggles against violations16 have also been experienced intensively in this continent, especially during the Industrial Revolution in England. As a result of all these and similar problems due to the second half of the 20th century, the continent was the most intense continental conflict and war.
The states that make up the EU are composed of very different nationalities and States who are enthusiastic about the idea of the EU and who are restrained and societies. Dissolve them in a pot for the same ideal sake One way of integrating is to give up their nationalities and to adopt EU nationalism as an upper identity.
The EU has made this clear with its policies. For example, if they accept a common migration and immigration policy, it still shows that it moves with national reflexes. Rapidly aging populations
due to a number of problems caused by dynamic labor shortages in the near future.
Although they face a serious progress they are still far from providing. In fact, migrations from member countries in recent years they tend to limit. For example, Bulgaria and Romania. Participation in the Schengen Treaty, despite their full membership in the EU in 2007 continue to be postponed.
The most important feature of Schengen is to remove the boundaries between the member states and create a common external border. Thus, the distinction of us and UE them ”is not valid for EU member states but for countries outside the EU.
As a result, it makes an important contribution to the development of Europeanism. Thus, the Schengen practice has developed a sense of belonging to the same land by symbolically and psychologically influencing the citizens of EU member states.39 However, some member states, such as Denmark and France, have begun to advocate more stringent control of borders, with the increasing immigration. In Germany, such as Germany, which implies a breach of the Schengen Treaty. There are also countries.
In addition, the economic and financial problems of racist thoughts resurrection and strengthening. For this reason, aggressive and discriminatory policies towards non-European Africans, Africans, Easterners and Muslims living in Western Europe have started to find a base. It is the most obvious example of this to be the emergence of a non-friendly minaret crisis for Muslim communities, the emergence of artificial crises such as the cartoon crisis, and the adoption of a biased attitude in these crises.
All of these and similar applications are the achievements of the EU so far. It shows that it cannot be internalized yet and that the societies that make up the EU cannot tolerate and tolerate those who are not. In other words, in the social subconscious, old enemies still remain enemies and cannot become new ”friends Yani. The multiculturalism / multiculturalism policy that they are trying to implement is not fully implemented against the people who come as workers, especially from the former colonies Rising xenophobia is the biggest indicator of this.
In addition, at the beginning of the Brexit debate in England, 'The Turks will come, Polish workers will take your work, refugees will occupy all sides, such as ISIS will spread' current reactions came forward. Islamophobia, racism, and xenophobia were supposed to be rising for this reason.
But it is not. More severe and widespread reactions in the United Kingdom have emerged in the American elections. The issues raised there were immigrants, Islamophobia, and xenophobia. But these are the results. The reasons are deep and yet not fully understood.
The result is a deep objection to Western globalism. Because they think that unemployment, poverty, terror, and chaos are all due to globalization and capitalism is gnawing on themselves like hungry wolves. Immigrants from Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America view the reason for their exploitation, occupation and, therefore, intense immigration. Cheap labor, cheap cost policies of multinational companies are now influencing people who are the real owners of the country.
In the post-Cold War period, racist approaches in the European Union countries began to take place in the international arena. When it comes to xenophobia and racism in general, Germany is the first country to come to mind in Europe.
However, the European Parliament elections in 2014 have shown that these approaches are not limited to Germany. Nearly all of the European Union countries, xenophobia and racism are increasing day by day. To date, racism has emerged in the discourse of extreme right-wing political parties in Europe in the form of anti-Islamism.
In the European continent, especially in the European Union member countries, the extreme right-wing parties have been on the rise since the beginning of the 21st century. At the beginning of the process, this threatening situation, which is more influential in Austria and France, is now surrounded by almost all European countries. Many authors say the rise of extreme right-wing parties in Europe in 2008 in the US and the global economic crisis spread to the world it is clear that this is not the reason. For example; Spain 2008 global economic. Despite the fact that it is one of the countries that suffer the most from the crisis, the right populist parties have not come to the forefront.
On the other hand, in countries such as Finland and Austria, which have not been affected by the economic crisis, extreme right parties have started to rise. It is therefore difficult to prove that people who are unemployed and those with low incomes are voting for extreme right parties. When we examine the most general framework in the historical process in the wake of the economic crises in the world of extreme right-wing and racist policies it is true that the rise of the extreme right with globalization is not only small enough to be explained economically; from the security to the culture and identity understanding has a structure. So much so that the analysis on the subject.It is stated that the European Integration project which started after the
Second World War was faced with the most serious threat in its history.
In Europe, it can be considered as evidence that discrimination and marginalization of immigrants belonging to different religions are present in all areas. On 22 July 2011, two terrorist attacks were carried out by Anders Behring Breivik on the city of Oslo and Utoya in Norway on a total of 77 deaths and injured 242 people.
Compared to the previous European Parliament elections, the increase in the votes of the right-wing parties in the 2014 elections was an expected result. Because the impact of the global economic crisis in the 2009 European Parliament elections unemployment and instability caused by the crisis
more deeply, the racist in this context approaches have also increased. In parallel to this rise,
The most obvious examples of increasing right-wing parties in Germany and Greece
the Nationalist Democratic Party in Germany and the Golden Dawn Party in Greece for the first time a deputy of the European Parliament has succeeded in sending.
The first name that comes to mind when racism is called in Europe in the early 2000s. The Austrian is Jörg Haider. Haider 27s president of the Austrian Freedom Party (FPÖ- Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs) became a government partner with 27% of the votes after the 1999 elections. Haider is a politician known for his discourses on racism and xenophobia. because this no European politician had ever been so explicitly expressing racist discourses.
In addition to being Haider's Austrian like Adolf Hitler, his sympathy for Hitler's policies and many other features led him to question the heads of Europeans on the European continent and to respond harshly against Haider. has caused occur. Europe has made a great effort to ensure that the Austrian Freedom Party, led by Haider, does not turn into the Hitler-led National Socialist Party. Violent reactions to Haider forced to resign.
Jean-Marie Le Pen is another typical name that creates an agenda with racist rhetoric. Le Pen left the candidate for the second round in the presidential elections held in France in 2002. After Haider, he once again shook. In a sense this unexpected result He has proven that racist discourses in Europe are supported by the people. The events of September 11 in the USA
caused xenophobia and racism to be exacerbated. Of course, the main point to be mentioned here is that the discourse on xenophobia is becoming an enmity towards Muslims.
One of the most striking examples of Islamophobia and racism in Europe is the former.Thilo Sarrazin, a member of the board of directors, issued in 2010 (Deutschland schafft sich ab: Wie war unser Land aufs Spiel setzen) are the expressions in the book. In his book, Sarrazin claimed that Muslims did not adapt to German society and that immigrants with low levels of education had a negative impact on Germany. In There is no other group of immigrants as strongly as Muslims, which is dependent on crime and the welfare state, ın said Sarrazin. it is another size.
Recently, extreme right-wing parties in Europe often talk about themselves began. In particular, the European Parliament elections in 2014 have shown that in today's most European Union member countries, extreme right-wing parties find support from a large part of the society and increase their voting rates day by day.
In today's Europe, every negativity in the economic, social and political aspects and the cause of the extreme reactions to the problem are the abuses in the past centuries, which are settled in the social subconscious.
Today, it has not lost anything of nationalism. However, there are many more things people will lose after the problems that will be caused by today's nationalism. Because, especially in Europe, the economic, political and social rights that have been acquired have increased not to be compared to previous periods. Therefore, the more accepted and widespread among these people, the more peace and stability will be possible. Because the EU integration process is a tool to realize this aim. If integration was not a means but a goal, the member states would not be shy and reluctant to transfer their nationalities to the EU authority and institutions, they would be able to achieve integration in a short time. The reason behind the over 60 years of this process not being realized at the desired or expected speed is due to the dynamics of the European societies.
CONCLUSION
Nationalism is political or the way By creating, it creates an fun environment on the individuals.
The content of speech, speech, and action is problematic; it prohibits a thinking adult and criticism; "you will love or leave." Therefore, any situation or event in terms of nationalism is linked to limitations; selectively provide ways to accomplish this. Nationalism is to draw a border. The border is the beginning and the end of action, speech and discourse. The border is a rhetoric; the production of certain forms of cultural understanding, identity and language. Talking to individuals people with a specific language, identity, and comprehension it allows framing in the size of passion.
This is the factor underlying nationalism as a discourse. Individuals do not limit themselves within this framing. A broad spectrum of nationalism's discourse they try to make him identical with a larger area. This wide area is the state itself. When we examine the existence of extreme right-wing parties in the political arena of Europe, we see the rising faced with a table. The votes increase in the election results of the extreme right-wing parties, along with the facts on xenophobia, racism, and Islamophobia, have been placed on the European agenda. In particular, anti-Islamism has emerged as a major element in the election propaganda and discourse of political leaders in European countries.
The laws, the referendums There have been obvious examples of how widespread Islamophobia in Europe is. In Europe, the group alienation lam of migrants, especially Muslim migrants, has prepared the ground for the clashes between groups that advocate or oppose this situation socially. Conflicts and strong debate in Europe.Despite the fact that the votes of political parties, which led to rhetoric, increased, the politicians did not seek any attitude and solution to prevent this situation.In this context, immigrants in Europe social integration and participation policies should be developed further, employment opportunities should be increased, educational activities should be encouraged and effective studies should be carried out in inter-religious dialogue.
The member states of the European Union should not try to create movements like Pegida if they see different cultures as riches, as they say, they should try not to be a continent which is known by anti-Islamism, xenophobia, and racism.
In order to prevent extreme nationalism in Europe; The ongoing EU process should not be ve capital centered Halen but ”human and labor-centered Halen. In order for the European Union
process to be democracy human and labor-centered Europe, it is necessary to overcome the narrow limits of-representative etti unhealthy democracy lar taught by classical liberalism and to develop c participatory-strong democracy Europe.
The new international system that emerged with the end of the Cold War led to the redefinition of concepts such as community, identity, citizenship, and nationalism. Europeans who were in a state of uncertainty and fear of the future in the new world order did not want to share their well-being with the perceived group in terms of religion and culture. They saw them as the d other. From time to time they also excluded the migrant Muslim population, especially with the stamps as potential fundamentalist terrorists. Turkish immigrants formed a significant part of this population. This segment has become the material of the far-right nationalists and this has brought a political advantage to politics.
Acts such as or greens “and political leaders such as Cohn-Bendit show that the Old Continent would not be easily surrendered to extreme nationalism and that the process of the European Union could be easy to human and labor-centered and that participatory-strong democracy, could develop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Breuilly, J. (1993). Nationalism and the State. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Calhoun, C. (1997). Concepts in Social Thought: Nationalism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Pres.
Carr, E. H.. (1945). Nationalism and After. London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
Deutsch, K. W. (1966) Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality. New York: MIT Press.
Hobsbawm, E. (1990). Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Kedourie, E. (1961). Nationalism. London: Hutchinson University Library.
Kellas, J. G. (1998). The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity. Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1998.
Kohn, H. (1965). Nationalism: Its Meaning and History. Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Company. Lawrence, P. (2005). Nationalism: History and Theory. Pearson: Harlow.
Özkırımlı, Ü. (2000). Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction. New York: Palgrave.
Partha, C. (1996). Whose Imagined Community?.Gopal Balakrishnan (Edt.), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso-New Left Books, 214-226.
BERNHARD Henry, PEGIDA, Eine neue APO in Ostdeutschland?, http://www. deutschlandradiokultur.de/pegida-eine-neue-apo-in-ostdeutschland.976. de.html?dram%3Aarticle_id=310694
BOHMANN Christin, Pegida spricht aus, was die Leute denken, http://www. mdr.de/mdr-aktuell/pegida-interview-extremismusforscher100_cpage-7_zc5f8e8344_zs-046016ee.html
BÖSS Gideon, Deutsche Streitkultur, Pegida und der Islam, http://boess.welt. de/2015/01/07/deutsche-streitkultur-pegida-und-der-islam/
EUMC Annual Report, “Racism and Xenophobia in the EU Member States”, http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/103-ar05p2en.pdf, 2005.
GUIBERNAU Montserrat, Migration and The Rise of The Radical Right, Policy Network Paper, Mart 2010.
HARTLEB Florian, “Gegen Globalisierung und Demokratie. Die NPD als eine neue soziale Bewegung im europäischen Kontext?”, Zeitschrift für Parlamentsfragen, 2009, s. 115-127.
RODRIGUEZ-AGUILERA Cesáreo, “The Rise of The Far Right in Europe”, IEMD Mediterranean Yearbook, 2014, s. 178-181.
SKROBALA Jurek, Pegida-Kampfbegriffe: Vokabular wie bei Goebbels, Spiegel Online Kultur
12.01.2015, http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/gesellschaft/pegidakampfbegriffe-was-verbirgt-sich-hinter-der-rhetorik-a-1011755.html
VORLÄNDER Hans, Wer geht warum zu PEGIDA-Demonstrationen? Technische Universität Dresden, http://tu-dresden.de/aktuelles/news/Downloads/praespeg
